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All in all blood pressure medication ingredients tenormin 50 mg online, the results indicate that genetic differences among individuals play a substantial role in the predisposition for schizophrenia. Such results indicate that it is the genetic similarity, not the environmental similarity, between relatives that produces high concordance for schizophrenia. More recently a great deal of research has been aimed at identifying individual genes that contribute to the development of schizophrenia. Many different genes appear to be involved, and no single gene or small set of genes can account for most of the genetic influence in large samples of people with schizophrenia (Bertram, 2008). Consistent with current chemical theories of schizophrenia, at least some of the identified genes are known to influence dopamine neurotransmission, and some are known to influence glutamate neurotransmission (Bertram, 2008; Broome et al. Of particular interest is the fact that the average concordance for schizophrenia for identical twins, 48 percent, is much less than the 100 percent that would be predicted if genes alone were involved. Another noteworthy observation in the table is that the concordance for schizophrenia in fraternal twins is considerably higher than that for nontwin pairs of full siblings-17 percent compared to 9 percent. This difference cannot be explained in terms of genes, as fraternal twins are no more similar to each other genetically than are other full siblings, but it is consistent with the possibility of a prenatal influence. Twins share the same womb at the same time, so they are exposed to the same prenatal stressors and toxins. That fact, of course, applies to identical twins as well as to fraternal twins, so some portion of the 48 percent concordance in identical twins may result not from shared genes but from shared prenatal environments. A number of studies have pointed to specific prenatal variables that can contribute to the likelihood of developing schizophrenia. People born in the western Netherlands between October 15 and December 31, 1945, immediately following a severe famine brought on by a Nazi blockade of food supplies, are twice as likely as others born in the Netherlands to have developed schizophrenia (Susser et al. The results here are the percentage of relatives who showed either schizophrenia or a milder disorder now called schizotypal personality disorder. Joe McNally/Hulton Archive/Getty Images Identical twins with nonidentical brains Steven, on the right, has schizophrenia. Such discordance for schizophrenia in identical twins sometimes occurs when one of the two twins (usually the one born second) suffers from lack of oxygen during the birth process and the other does not. Prenatal viral infections and birth complications may also contribute to a predisposition for schizophrenia. Heightened rates of schizophrenia have been found in people whose mothers had rubella (also known as German measles) or certain other viral diseases during pregnancy and in people who had difficult births, involving oxygen deprivation or other trauma to the brain (Brown & Patterson, 2011; Tandon et al. There is also evidence that head injury later on in childhood, before age 10, can increase the likelihood of developing schizophrenia (AbdelMalik et al. There is strong evidence that stressful life events of many sorts can precipitate schizophrenia and exacerbate its symptoms (Pallanti et al. One group of children was at high genetic risk for schizophrenia, but only in those schizophrenia because their biological mothers were diagnosed with either schizowho are genetically predisposed for the disorder The main finding was that those high-risk children whose adoptive parents communicated in a relatively disorganized, hard-to-follow, or highly emotional manner were much more likely to develop schizophrenia or a milder disorder akin to schizophrenia than were high-risk children whose adoptive parents communicated in a calmer, more organized fashion. The results suggest that a degree of disordered communication at home that does not harm most children may have damaging effects on those who are genetically predisposed for schizophrenia. Other research has centered on a concept referred to as expressed emotion, defined as criticisms and negative attitudes or feelings expressed about and toward a person with a mental disorder by family members with whom that person lives. Families high in expressed emotion tend to blame the diagnosed person for his or her disruptive or ineffective behavior rather than seeing it as something that he or she cannot control. Many studies indicate that, other things being equal, the greater the expressed emotion, the greater the likelihood that the active symptoms will return or worsen and the person will require hospitalization (Hooley, 2004; Tienari & Wahlberg, 2008). Moreover, a number of experiments have shown that support and training for family members, aimed at creating a more stable and accepting home environment and reducing expressed emotion, may significantly reduce the rate of relapse (Askey et al. Using agreed-upon criteria and cross-cultural reliability checks, the researchers diagnosed new cases of schizophrenia in each location, classed them according to symptom types and apparent severity, and reassessed each case through interviews conducted at various times in subsequent years. All in all, more than 1,000 people with schizophrenia were identified and followed over periods of up to 26 years (Hopper et al. The relative prevalence of the various symptoms, the severity of the initial symptoms, the average age of onset of the disorder, and the sex difference in age of onset (later for women than for men) were similar from location to location despite wide variations in the ways that people lived.

In one such study blood pressure percentile by age buy 50 mg tenormin with mastercard, Scheier and his colleagues (1989) used their questionnaire to assess dispositional optimism in middle-aged men who were about to undergo coronary artery bypass surgery. They found that those who scored high on optimism before the surgery made quicker recoveries than did those who scored low, even when the medical conditions that led to surgery were equivalent. The optimists were quicker to sit up on their own, to walk, to resume vigorous exercise, and to get back to work full time than were the pessimists. The most likely explanation for this and other positive correlations with optimism is that optimistic thinking leads people to devote attention and energy to solving their problems or recovering from their disabilities, which in turn leads to positive results. This young woman, the victim of a head-on automobile collision, works hard at strengthening her legs so she can walk again. The Optimistic Child Perhaps the most optimistic of any people on the planet are young children. When preschoolers are asked who are the smartest, most popular, most athletic, most attractive, or toughest kids in their class, they typically list themselves among the top. They typically also list other children whom the teacher and their classmates think are highly popular, attractive, athletic, and so forth, showing that they know talent when they see it. However, they typically include themselves among the list of the "best and the brightest," even if their classmates think otherwise (Boulton & Smith, 1990; Lipko, et al. Adaptive and Maladaptive Optimism and Pessimism Before concluding that optimism is always best, before rushing out to trade the clear lenses on our glasses for rose-tinted ones, we should consider a potential hazard of optimism. Health psychologists have long pointed out the danger of unrealistic, self-delusional forms of optimism. Similarly, an optimistic, inflated belief in their academic or career abilities blinds some people to their own shortcomings and prevents them from taking steps to improve (Dunning et al. Optimism of this sort, which in the psychodynamic tradition is called defensive optimism, may reduce anxiety by diverting thoughts away from fearful possibilities, but it may also lead to serious harm. The optimistic belief that you can control your fate through active self-care and self-improvement usually leads to constructive behaviors, but the optimistic belief that fate will protect you without your participation can lead to dangerously imprudent behaviors. Just as optimism can be adaptive or maladaptive, depending on whether or not it translates in to constructive action, so can pessimism. In research on the cognitive underpinnings of success in college, Julie Norem and her colleagues found students who use apparently opposite mental strategies to perform well academically (Norem & Illingworth, 1993, 2004). They believe they will do well, and that belief, coupled with their thoughts about the positive consequences of doing well, motivates them to work hard and actually do well. They believe that there is a good chance that they will not do well, despite having done well in the past, and that belief, along with thoughts about the negative consequences of failure, motivates them to work hard to avoid failure. As a result, and apparently to their surprise, they not only pass but achieve high grades. Our guess is that the difference between those who use either optimism or pessimism constructively and those who do not has to do with beliefs about locus of 34 What seems to differentiate adaptive from maladaptive optimism and adaptive from maladaptive pessimism People who believe that rewards are controllable (internal locus of control) and that they themselves can improve through effort (malleable self-belief) are likely to work hard and do well regardless of whether or not their focus is on achieving anticipated success (the goal of optimists) or preventing anticipated failure (the goal of pessimists). Consistent with this view, Norem (2008) reports that the defensive pessimists she has studied believe more strongly than do other anxious people that they can improve themselves through effort. To understand a person, according to these theorists, one must not only know that a person tends to be extraverted or introverted, for example, but must also know the contexts in which the person typically manifests those tendencies. One person might be shy (introverted) at parties but outspoken (extraverted) at formal meetings, while the opposite might be true of another person. The leading advocate for this contextual view of personality is social-cognitive theorist Walter Mischel (1984, 2007). In one study, Mischel and Phillip Peake (1982) assessed repeatedly, by direct observation, 19 different forms of behavior presumed to be related to the trait of conscientiousness in a group of students at Carleton College in Minnesota. Included were measures of regularity of class attendance, promptness in completing assignments, bed neatness, and neatness of class notes. They found high consistency within any one of these measures but relatively low consistency across measures. For instance, students who kept neat notes for one class were very likely to keep neat notes for another class but only slightly more likely than average to keep their beds neat. In another study, Mischel and his colleagues found that children with social adjustment problems at a summer camp were not well described by such global traits as "aggressive" or "withdrawn" but were quite well described and differentiated from one another by terms that referred to the social situations that prompted them to act aggressively or to withdraw (Mischel & Shoda, 1995; Shoda et al. Zero on the y axis represents the average aggressiveness for all the children observed. In overall verbal aggressiveness, these two children were similar, but they were very different with respect to the situations that elicited their aggression. As shown in the figure, both children were somewhat more verbally aggressive than the average child at the camp, but the two were very different from each other with regard to the situations in which they exhibited aggression.

Only one of these many millions of sperm blood pressure diastolic low discount 100 mg tenormin with mastercard, however, will impregnate the egg, and this will occur in the fallopian tube, which connects the ovaries to the uterus, or womb. Zygotic, Embryonic, and Fetal Phases the prenatal period is conventionally divided in to three phases: the zygotic (or germinal), embryonic, and fetal phases. When sperm joins egg, combining 23 nuclear genes from the mother with 23 from the father (review the basics of genetics in Chapter 3), the zygote begins its journey to the uterus. During this time, which last about 2 weeks, the zygote divides many times, eventually implanting in the uterine wall, ending the zygotic phase and beginning the embryonic phase. The embryonic period extends from the third to about the eighth week after conception. The placenta also exchanges oxygen, antibodies, and wastes between the mother and embryo. The final phase of the prenatal period, the fetal, extends from about 9 weeks until birth, which usually takes place about 38 weeks after conception. The most prominent feature of the fetal period is growth and refi nement of organs and body structure. Six months later, at birth, the average newborn is about 20 inches long and weighs about 7. The head of the fetus at 9 weeks is proportionally large relative to the rest of the body, and this decreases, with the body catching up, so to speak, by the time a baby is born. In comparison, the head is about only 12 percent of the body of the average adult (Tanner, 1990). This change in proportions, with development progressing essentially from head to foot, is termed cephalocaudal development. By the end of the 12th week after conception, all the organs are formed, though not functioning well, and are in same proportion to each other as in a fullterm newborn, just smaller. The external genitalia begin to differentiate between males and females around the 9th week but are not fully formed until about the 12th week. As early as the 8th week, the embryo begins to move, and activity increases by 12 weeks. For example, ultrasounds reveal that some fetuses suck their thumbs and respond to touch. Development during the fetal phase involves mostly increases in size and perfecting the functioning of organs. These include both legal and illegal drugs, including marijuana, cocaine, and heroin, and prescription drugs such as antibiotics, antidepressants, and sex hormones; as well as alcohol and tobacco-substances that a pregnant woman may not think of as "drugs. Recall that development of organ systems is most rapid during the embryonic period, between the 3rd and 8th weeks after conception. This is the time when an agent can most substantially alter the course of development; it may, for example, prevent an organ from developing properly, or fingers and toes from forming. Once an organ such as the kidney or hands or feet has been developed, exposure to a potential teratogen will have little or no effect on future development. This was dramatically illustrated by the drug thalidomide, which was prescribed to some women in Europe and Asia in the early 1960s to combat morning sickness. The drug 2 When is the unborn child most susceptible to the effects of teratogens, and why Pregnant women who took the drug thalidomide early in pregnancy gave birth to babies with malformed limbs. Women who took the drug later had physically normal babies, illustrating the sensitivity of the embryo to the effects of teratogens. However, these deformations were not found in babies born to women who took the drug later in pregnancy, after limbs and their appendages had already been developed. It is not just teratogens that embryos and fetuses respond to , but other aspects of experience, such as nutrition and maternal stress. For example, we noted in Chapter 6 that women with poor diets during pregnancy tend to have low-birth-weight infants who then grow to become overweight or obese during childhood. These babies developed "thrifty phenotypes," storing more fat than children whose prenatal diets were more nutritious. In other situations, children who were prenatally exposed to high levels of stress hormones show higher anxiety and fearfulness, temperamental difficulty, impulsivity, reduced executive functions, impaired attention, higher aggression, and risk taking (Glover, 2011; Pluess & Belsky, 2011). Although these can all be viewed as negative consequences of prenatal stress, some of these characteristics (for example, high levels of aggression and risk taking) may be well suited for children growing up in high-stress environments.

The distinction is fuzzy heart attack in spanish generic tenormin 100mg overnight delivery, however, because the organizing of stimulus information in ways useful for extracting meaning actually begins during the earliest steps of taking that information in. This chapter begins with a brief overview of basic processes involved in sensation. We then provide a discussion of psychophysics, which is an approach to finding and describing reliable relationships between physical stimuli and sensory experiences of those stimuli. The next chapter deals exclusively with vision, which is by far the most thoroughly studied of the senses. Overview of Sensory Processes 1 How can the process of sensation be described as a chain of three different kinds of events Most broadly, the process of sensation can be diagrammed as follows: physical stimulus S physiological response S sensory experience We have here three classes of events, each of which is entirely different from the others: (1) the physical stimulus is the matter or energy of the physical world that impinges on sense organs; (2) the physiological response is the pattern of chemical and electrical activity that occurs in sense organs, nerves, and the brain as a result of the stimulus; and (3) the sensory experience is the subjective, psychological sensation or perception-the taste, sound, or sight, for instance-experienced by the individual whose sense organs have been stimulated. The sensory experience generally tells us something about the physical stimulus, but it is a very different thing from the physical stimulus. In sipping a cup of coffee, we encounter molecules of caffeine on our tongue, and we experience a bitter taste. The bitterness is not a chemical property of the caffeine molecules; it exists only in our sensory experience triggered by the molecules. Electromagnetic energy of a certain wavelength enters our eyes, and we experience the dark brown color of coffee. The brown color is not a property of the electromagnetic energy but exists only in our sensory experience. Sensory psychologists are interested in identifying lawful relationships among the three just-described classes of events. Each Sensory System Has Distinct Receptors and Neural Pathways Ever since Aristotle, people have spoken of the five senses, identifying them as smell, taste, touch, hearing, and vision. We have a sense of balance, mediated by a mechanism in the inner ear, and a sense of limb position and movement, mediated by receptors in muscles and joints. Each sense has distinct sensory receptors and neural pathways to and within the brain (Hendry & Hsiao, 2012a). Sensory receptors are specialized structures that respond to physical stimuli by producing electrical changes that can initiate neural impulses in sensory neurons. Sensory neurons (described and illustrated in Chapter 5) are specialized neurons that carry information from sensory receptors in to the central nervous system. For some senses, receptors are simply the sensitive ends of sensory neurons; for others, they are separate cells that form synapses upon sensory neurons. For some senses, receptors all exist in a specific, localized sensory organ, such as the ear, eye, or nose; for others, they exist in a wide variety of locations. Pain receptors, for example, exist not just throughout the skin but also in muscles, tendons, joints, and Primary taste area many other places. The stimuli, receptors, and peripheral nerves involved in the most thoroughly studied senses are listed in Table 7. Regardless of whether they come from one location or many, the neurons for any given sense lead to pathways in the central nervous system that are unique to that sense. Although Primary olfactory area brain structures below the cortex can organize unconscious behavioral reactions to sensory stimuli, conscious sensory experiences depend on activity within the cerebral cortex. Every sensation that you experience consciously is a product, ultimately, of some pattern of activity within a sensory area of your cerebral cortex. The primary taste area lies in a portion of the cerebral cortex called the insula, which is buried in the fold between the parietal and temporal lobes. The primary olfactory area lies in a portion of cerebral cortex called the piriform cortex, which wraps underneath the temporal lobe. If we could somehow rewire those connections, sending your optic nerves to your auditory brain areas and your auditory nerves to your visual brain areas, you would hear light and see sound. When you bump the back of your head, you may "see stars," because the bump artificially activates neurons in visual areas of your brain. Sensory Systems Preserve Information About Stimulus Quantity and Quality For senses to be useful, they must preserve-in the patterns of neural activity they produce-relevant information about the physical stimuli to which they are responding. Every form of energy can vary along at least two dimensions-a quantitative dimension and a qualitative one. A sound or light can be weak or strong; molecules stimulating taste or smell can be dilute or highly concentrated. Lights of different wavelengths (which we perceive as different colors) are considered to be qualitatively different, as are sounds of different frequencies (which we perceive as different pitches), as are different chemicals (which we perceive as different smells or tastes). For each of our senses, transduction (the process by which a receptor cell produces an electrical change in response to physical stimulation) occurs in such a way that information about the quantity and quality of the stimulus is preserved in the pattern of action potentials sent to the brain.

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