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In chronic cases gastritis symptoms heart attack buy genuine diarex on line, infection may spread to adjacent bone or into the cranial cavity inflaming meninges or brain tissue. Treatment includes decongestants; analgesics; antibiotics; and in some cases, surgery to improve drainage. The lacrimal sacs collect tears from the corner of each eyelid and drain them into the nasal cavity. The mucosa-covered conchae greatly increase the surface over which air must flow as it passes through the nasal cavity. As air moves over the conchae and through the nasal cavities, it is warmed and humidified. This helps explain why breathing through the nose is more effec- tive in humidifying inspired air than is breathing through the mouth. The uppermost part of the tube just behind the nasal cavities is called the nasopharynx. The pharynx as a whole serves the same purpose for the respiratory and digestive tracts as a hallway serves for a house. Air and food pass through the pharynx on their way to the lungs and the stomach, respectively. Air enters the pharynx from the two nasal cavities and leaves it by way of the larynx; food enters it from the mouth and leaves it by way of the esophagus. This connection permits equalization of air pressure between the middle ear and the exterior ear. The lining of the auditory tubes is continuous with the lining of the nasopharynx and middle ear. Thus just as sinus infections can develop from colds in which the nasal mucosa is inflamed, middle ear infections can develop from inflammation of the nasopharynx. Masses of lymphoid tissue called tonsils are embedded in the mucous membrane of the pharynx. The palatine tonsils are located in the oropharynx and the pharyngeal tonsils, also called the adenoids, are located in the nasopharynx. Enlarged palatine tonsils can be seen nearly meeting at the midline of the pharynx. Swelling of the pharyngeal tonsils caused by infections may make it difficult or impossible for air to travel from the nose into the throat. Once a very common surgical procedure, tonsillectomy, with its potentially serious complications - including severe hemorrhage - is now performed only after other options have been exhausted. Although surgical removal may eventually be necessary in cases of repeated infections, swelling, or when nonsurgical treatments such as intensive antibiotic therapy prove ineffective, the number of tonsillectomies performed each year continues to decrease. The purpose of the tube is to ensure an open airway (see parts A and B of the figure). To ensure that the tube enters the trachea rather than the nearby esophagus (which leads to the stomach), anatomical landmarks such as the vocal folds are used. This procedure involves the cutting of an opening into the trachea (part C of the figure). Two short fibrous bands, the vocal cords, stretch across the interior of the larynx. Muscles that attach to the larynx cartilages can pull on these cords in such a way that they become tense or relaxed. When they are tense, the voice is high pitched; when they are relaxed, it is low pitched. The epiglottis acts like a trapdoor, closing off the larynx during swallowing and preventing food from entering the trachea. It occurs most often in men over age 50 and is often diagnosed because of persistent hoarseness and difficulty in swallowing. A number of therapeutic treatments including surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy can be curative but about one-third of those affected will die of the disease.

The two sternocleidomastoid muscles are located on the anterior surface of the neck gastritis caused by stress cheap diarex 30 caps on-line. They originate on the sternum and then pass up and cross the neck to insert on the mastoid process of the skull. The triangular-shaped trapezius muscles form the line from each shoulder to the neck on its posterior surface. They have a wide line of origin extending from the base of the skull down the spinal column to the last thoracic vertebra. When contracted, the trapezius muscles help elevate the shoulders and extend the head backward. To learn more about movement produced by skeletal muscle contractions, go to AnimationDirect online at evolve. Skeletal Muscle Groups In the paragraphs that follow, representative muscles from the most important skeletal muscle groups are discussed. It originates from the bones of the shoulder girdle and inserts on the radius in the forearm. It has three heads of origin from the shoulder girdle and inserts into the olecranon process of the ulna. The triceps is an extensor of the elbow and thus performs a straightening function. The result is a very strong "girdle" of muscle that covers and supports the abdominal cavity and its internal organs. The three layers of muscle in the anterolateral (side) abdominal walls are arranged as follows: the outermost layer or external oblique; a middle layer or internal oblique; and the innermost layer or transversus abdominis. In addition to these sheetlike muscles, the band- or strap-shaped rectus abdominis muscle runs down the midline of the abdomen from the thorax to the pubis. In addition to protecting the abdominal viscera, the rectus abdominis flexes the spinal column. The neck muscles connect the skull to the trunk of the body, rotating the head or bending the neck. The pectoralis major is a flexor, and the latissimus dorsi is an extensor of the upper arm. Intercostal muscles, located between the ribs, and the sheetlike diaphragm separating the thoracic and abdominal cavities change the size and shape of the chest during breathing. Muscles of the Lower Extremities the iliopsoas originates from deep within the pelvis and the lower vertebrae to insert on the lesser trochanter of the femur and capsule of the hip joint. It is generally classified as a flexor of the thigh and an important postural muscle that stabilizes and keeps the trunk from falling over backward when you stand. However, if the thigh is fixed so that it cannot move, the iliopsoas flexes the trunk. The gluteus maximus forms the outer contour and much of the substance of the buttock. The three hamstring muscles are called the semimembranosus, semitendinosus, and biceps femoris. One component of the quadriceps group has its origin on the pelvis, and the remaining three originate on the femur; all four insert on the tibia. Functionally, the hamstrings (flexors) and quadriceps (extensors) act as powerful antagonists in movement of the leg. It inserts through the calcaneal (Achilles) tendon into the heel bone or calcaneus. Major Muscular Disorders As you might expect, muscle disorders, or myopathies, generally disrupt the normal movement of the body. In mild cases, these disorders vary in degree of discomfort from merely inconvenient to slightly troublesome. Severe muscle disorders, however, can impair the muscles used in breathing - a life-threatening situation. Muscle strains are characterized by muscle pain, or myalgia, and involve over-stretching or tearing of muscle fibers. If an injury occurs in the area of a joint and a ligament is damaged, the injury may be called a sprain. Any muscle inflammation, including that caused by a muscle strain, is termed myositis. When a muscle is severely strained, it may break in two pieces, causing a visible gap in muscle tissue under the skin.

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Normally gastritis diagnosis purchase online diarex, pain is a warning signal that calls attention to injuries or dangerous circumstances. However, it is better to inhibit severe pain if it would stop us from continuing an activity that may be necessary for survival. Depression also can be a distinct mental illness that can be caused by a variety of factors. More recent explanations theorize that it is a lack of sufficient synaptic connections in the mood pathways of the brain that are to blame. Some of the more commonly used antidepressants today are paroxetine (Paxil), fluoxetine (Prozac), and sertraline (Zoloft). These drugs produce their effects by blocking the uptake of serotonin back into presynaptic neurons. Serotonin-uptake inhibition causes an increase in the amount of serotonin in the synapse, thereby reversing the serotonin deficit that may contribute to feelings of depression. Other types of antidepressants increase serotonin levels in other ways or affect other neurotransmitters, such as dopamine or norepinephrine, also active in mood pathways associated with depression. The signs include (but are not limited to) rigidity and trembling of the head and extremities, a forward tilt of the trunk, and a shuffling gait with short steps and reduced arm swinging. You may have noticed these signs in former boxing champion Muhammad Ali, the actor Michael J. All of these characteristics result from lack of dopamine, leading to misinformation in the parts of the brain that normally prevents the skeletal muscles from being overstimulated. Dopamine injections and dopamine pills are not effective treatments because dopamine cannot cross the blood-brain barrier (see box on facing page). A breakthrough in the treatment of Parkinson disease came when the drug levodopa or l-dopa (Sinemet) was found to increase the dopamine levels in afflicted patients. For some reason, l-dopa does not always have the desired effects in individual patients or its effect may wear off over time, so a number of alternative treatments have been developed. For example, the drug apomorphine (Apokyn) has proved useful in treating individuals who no longer respond to l-dopa. The brain is protected in the cranial cavity of the skull, and the spinal cord is surrounded in the spinal cavity by the vertebral column. In addition, the brain and spinal cord are also covered by protective membranes called meninges, which are discussed in a later section of the chapter. Notice in the figure that the "feet" of the astrocytes form a wall around the outside of blood vessels in the nervous system. However, many toxins and pathogens that can enter other tissues through blood vessel walls cannot enter nervous tissue because of this barrier. This adaptation enhances survival because it protects vital brain and nerve tissues from damage. For example, penicillin and other antibiotics cannot enter the interstitial fluid of brain tissue from the blood. Obviously, this makes development of treatments for brain disorders sometimes very difficult. It lies just inside the cranial cavity above the large hole in the occipital bone called the foramen magnum. As with the spinal cord, the medulla consists of gray and white matter, but the arrangement differs in the two organs. In the spinal cord, gray and white matter do not intermingle; gray matter forms the interior core of the cord, and white matter surrounds it. The pons and midbrain, like the medulla, consist of white matter and scattered bits of gray matter. Sensory fibers conduct impulses up from the cord to other parts of the brain, and motor fibers conduct impulses down from the brain to the cord. The cardiac, respiratory, and vasomotor centers (collectively called the vital centers), for example, are located in the medulla.

Origin - attachment to the bone that remains relatively stationary or fixed when movement at the joint occurs b gastritis workup buy diarex 30 caps with mastercard. Muscles attach to bone by tendons - strong cords of fibrous connective tissue; some tendons are enclosed in synovial-lined tubes and are lubricated by synovial fluid; tubes are called tendon sheaths 5. Bursae - small synovial-lined sacs containing a small amount of synovial fluid; located between some tendons and underlying bones B. Contractile cells, or muscle fibers - grouped into bundles and intricately arranged 2. Fibers contain thick myofilaments (containing the protein myosin) and thin myofilaments (composed of actin) 3. Movement caused by ability of muscle cells (called fibers) to shorten or contract 2. Muscle cells shorten by converting chemical energy (obtained from food) into mechanical energy, which causes movement 3. Interconnected nature of cardiac muscle cells allows heart to contract efficiently as a unit C. Lacks cross stripes, or striations, when seen under a microscope; appears smooth 2. Found in walls of hollow visceral structures such as digestive tract, blood vessels, and ureters 3. Contractions not under voluntary control; movement caused by contraction is involuntary D. Function - all muscle cells specialize in contraction (shortening) Function of Skeletal Muscle A. Synergist - muscle whose contractions help the prime mover produce a given movement c. Antagonist - muscle whose actions oppose the action of a prime mover in any given movement B. A type of muscle contraction, called tonic contraction, enables us to maintain body position a. Contraction of muscle fibers produces most of the heat required to maintain normal body temperature D. Contraction in the absence of adequate oxygen produces lactic acid, which contributes to muscle burning 5. Oxygen debt - term used to describe the metabolic effort required to burn excess lactic acid that may accumulate during prolonged periods of exercise a. This increased metabolism helps restore energy and oxygen reserves to pre-exercise levels 2. Respiratory, cardiovascular, nervous, muscular, and skeletal systems play essential roles in producing normal movements B. Multiple sclerosis, brain hemorrhage, and spinal cord injury are examples of how pathological conditions in other body organ systems can dramatically affect movement Motor Unit A. Stimulation of a muscle by a nerve impulse is required before a muscle can shorten and produce movement B. A motor neuron is the nerve cell that transmits an impulse to a muscle, causing contraction C. A muscle will contract only if an applied stimulus reaches a certain minimal level of intensity - called a threshold stimulus B. Once stimulated by a threshold stimulus, a muscle fiber will contract completely, a response called all or none C. Different muscle fibers in a muscle are controlled by different motor units having different thresholdstimulus levels 1. Although individual muscle fibers always respond in an "all or none" mode to a threshold stimulus, the muscle as a whole does not 2. Different motor units responding to different threshold stimuli permit a muscle as a whole to execute contractions of graded force Role of Other Body Systems in Movement A. Most muscles cause movements by pulling on bones across movable joints Effects of Exercise on Skeletal Muscles A.