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Microbes that decompose dead plants and animals use large quantities of oxygen antibiotics for acne vibramycin purchase discount minocycline line, and the lack of oxygen leads to more deaths. They cause debilitation in large numbers of people and sometimes death, especially in poor countries that lack the resources to eradicate those protists. Parasitic diseases caused by protozoa include amoebic dysentery, malaria, sleeping sickness, leishmaniasis, and toxoplasmosis. Together, these diseases account for severe losses in human productivity, incalculable human misery, and many deaths. We can accomplish our main purpose of illustrating diversity and avoid taxonomic problems by grouping protists according to the kingdom of macroscopic organisms they most resemble Table 11. When these marine organisms appear seasonally in large numbers, they cause a bloom known as a red tide. The toxins accumulate in the bodies of shellfish such as oysters and clams that feed on the protists. Although the toxin does not harm the shellfish, it causes paralytic shellfish poisoning in some fish, and in humans who eat the infected shellfish. Even animals as large as dolphins have been killed in large numbers by this toxin. Inhaling air that contains small quantities of the toxin can irritate respiratory membranes, so sensitive individuals should avoid the sea and its products during red tides. In the last 30 years, the number of red tides worldwide has increased significantly-possibly linked to increased pollution. This is especially a problem with farmed fish who cannot swim away to escape death. The Plantlike Protists the plantlike protists, or algae, have chloroplasts and carry on photosynthesis. Another group of plantlike protists have other pigments in addition to chlorophyll. These protists usually have cell walls surrounded by a loosely attached, secreted test that contains silicon or calcium carbonate. Diatoms are an especially numerous group and are important as producers in both freshwater and marine environments. They are sometimes classified as protists, sometimes as plants, and sometimes divided between the protist and plant kingdoms. Eukaryotic algae should not be confused with blue-green algae (now called cyanobacteria), which are prokaryotes. Although both eukaryotic and prokaryotic algae are important as producers in many environments, they are generally not of medical significance. Some eukaryotic algae, such as kelps (brown algae), are used as food and in the manufacture of products such as cheese spreads, toothpaste, and mayonnaise, to which they add smoothness and spreadability. They were struck by toxins produced by Pfiesteria piscicida, a dinoflagellate whose numbers can suddenly skyrocket during an algal bloom. This toxin wields a devastating blow to the immune system and higher-level brain functions. After coming out of a narcotic-like delirium, the mind seems to be going, and bleeding lesions appear on the skin. Shortly after exposure to the toxin, 20 to 40% of the immune system is destroyed and remains impaired for years. Pfiesteria is now grown in closed containers, and scientists breathe through air packs. Local watermen tell stories of similar problems after driving a boat through areas of fish kill. Fish coming into contact with the toxins float belly-up within 30 seconds, flap disorientedly, and are dead within 1 minute. During the winter, Pfiesteria lives by eating algae, from which it takes intact chloroplasts, and then uses them to do photosynthesis when the supply of algae drops. A new term coined to describe this use of chloroplasts is 'kleptochloroplasts,' literally 'stolen chloroplasts.

The difficulties of classifying bacteria are greatly magnified as one proceeds with total genome sequencing and discovery of more and more examples of lateral gene transfer antibiotics for acne and scars order minocycline 50 mg free shipping. Since then, eight editions, an abridged version, and several supplements have been published. It has also served as a reliable standby for medical workers interested in identifying the causative agents of infections. Rather, they are practical groupings of bacteria that make it easy to identify them. We did not yet have enough information to draw a complete evolutionary tree for bacteria. Bacterial nomenclature refers to the naming of species according to internationally agreed-upon rules. Both taxonomy and nomenclature are subject to change as new information is obtained. Organisms are sometimes moved from one category to another, and their official names are sometimes changed. For example, the bacterium that causes tularemia, a fever acquired by handling infected rabbits, was for many years called Pasteurella tularensis. With successful genetic discoveries and experiments like these going on, you probably assumed that most of the organisms inhabiting the Earth were well known. Biology is still discovering basic information about the most abundant, widely distributed, and biochemically versatile organisms on the planet-the prokaryotes. One recent study of a single habitat, for example, revealed a large variety of new bacterial groups, nearly doubling the number of bacterial phyla! Bacteria Some groups of bacteria, such as Rickettsiae and Chlamydiae, contain rather unusual organisms. These two groups are obligate intracellular parasites; that is, they can only grow inside living cells. They have sterols in their cell membranes that give them great flexibility of shape (pleomorphism; Chapter 4, p. Also interesting are the Ureaplasmas, also with unusual cell walls and/or cell membranes. In recent years, scientists have discovered living organisms in such diverse environments as submarine hot vents, inside volcanoes, and in deep oil wells. The vents lie more than 400 meters deep in a most unusual Russian lake, Lake Baikal, which is the deepest lake in the world and holds the greatest quantity of fresh water in the world. Located in central Asia, in Siberia, it lies in a pocket between two continental plates. Asia was formed as a solid mass when several plates collided one after another and remained together. The area of Lake Baikal is being pulled apart, forming a rift valley and eventually a new ocean. This region is comparable to the sea-floor spreading centers (ridges) of the Pacific Ocean, where other vent communities have been found. Lake Baikal is a unique treasure for studying the evolution of life and microbial forms. Most lakes are only thousands of years old, but Lake Baikal may be 25 million years old. Microbes similar to the early evolving stages of life may still exist in its depths. Archaea, which had previously been known from the deep-sea volcanic vents (black smokers) located 2,200 meters below the sea surface, have been found living on and in Mount St. We tend to think of life as being present only on the surface of the Earth, but perhaps there is a whole different range of life that we know nothing about, deep within the crust of the Earth. Daily, more and more evidence accumulates in favor of the idea of "continuous crustal culture. Various ecological problems have sent out scientists from universities, government, and industry to hunt for new microbes with properties that make the organisms useful in cleaning up the environment.

Organisms can grow in the reservoir pans of both cold mist and warm steam humidifiers virus 7zip generic minocycline 50mg otc, and the organisms can be dispersed in an aerosol as the machines operate. Therefore, all respiratory equipment should be disinfected or sterilized daily and, if not disposable, should be disinfected before being moved from one patient to the next. Wear gloves and gowns if soiling of hands, exposed skin, or clothing with blood or body fluids is likely. Wear masks and protective eye wear or chin-length plastic face shields whenever splashing or splattering of blood or body fluids is likely. Discard contaminated needles and other sharp items immediately into a nearby, special puncture-proof container. Clean spills of blood or contaminated fluids by (1) putting on gloves and any other barriers needed, (2) wiping up with disposable towels, (3) washing with soap and water, and (4) disinfecting with a 1:10 solution of household bleach and water. Other devices and procedures account for smaller, but significant, numbers of nosocomial infections. Devices used to monitor blood pressure in the heart or major vessels or cerebrospinal fluid pressure have tubing extending outside the body. Such devices can be contaminated or can allow introduction of organisms from the patient or from the environment. Improperly cleaned gynecological instruments can transmit disease from one patient to another. Endoscopes, which are introduced through body openings and used to examine the linings of organs such as the bladder, large intestine, stomach, and respiratory passageways, are difficult to sterilize and thus can transfer microorganisms from one patient to another. Another important factor that contributes to nosocomial infections is the intensive use of antibiotics, especially in hospital settings. How antibiotics contribute to the development of antibiotic-resistant pathogens and how these pathogens contribute to nosocomial infections were discussed in Chapter 13. Preventing and Controlling Nosocomial Infections the problem of nosocomial infections is widely recognized, and nearly all hospitals now have infection-control programs. In fact, to maintain accreditation by the American Hospital Association, hospitals must have programs that include surveillance of nosocomial infections in both patients and staff, a microbiology laboratory, isolation procedures, accepted procedures for the use of catheters and other instruments, general sanitation procedures, and a nosocomial disease education program for staff members. Safe practice requires using latex gloves, eye protection, a mask to prevent inhalation of aerosols (which are used extensively with modern drills), and the use of sterile equipment. Between patients, all items that could be contaminated with oral secretions or blood must be disinfected. It is not enough for the dentist merely to change gloves between patients-the clean glove might pick up organisms left on the equipment and transport them into the mouth of the next patient. Many dentists now use disposable plastic covers on light adjustment handles and other sites, which can be changed between patients, or wear a head lamp. A University of Georgia study has shown that internal parts of the hollow handle, which holds drill bits, polishing brushes, and other tools, can become coated with blood, saliva, and tooth fragments. The American Dental Association recommends heat sterilization of drill handles between patients, but this is inconvenient, shortens the life span of expensive equipment, and requires having more handles to use with each patient; thus, some dentists do not want to do so. Use of gloves, face shields, and masks by all dental personnel is essential if the spread of infection is to be avoided, but other measures are also necessary. Physicians, nurses, and other staff members who wash their hands thoroughly with soap and water between patient contacts can greatly reduce the risk of spreading diseases among patients. Scrupulous care in obtaining sterile equipment and maintaining its sterility while in use are also important. In addition, the use of gloves when handling infectious materials such as dressings and bedpans and when drawing blood prevents the spread of infections. And, as mentioned earlier, it is important to prevent insect infestations, as flies, ants, or roaches can easily spread an infectious agent. Other techniques are needed to reduce the development of antibiotic-resistant pathogens. Routine use of antimicrobial agents to prevent infections has turned out to be a misguided effort because it contributes to the development of resistant organisms. Antibiotics are given for known infections but are given prophylactically (as preventive measures) only in special situations. Prophylactic antibiotics are justified in surgical procedures such as those involving the intestinal tract and repair of traumatic injuries, in which the surgical field is invariably contaminated with potential pathogens. They also are justified in immunosuppressed and excessively debilitated patients, whose natural defense mechanisms may fail. If all the known techniques for preventing nosocomial infections were practiced rigorously, the incidence of such infections probably could be reduced to half the present level.

Some fastidious organisms antibiotic resistance vre discount 50mg minocycline with mastercard, including those that cause gonorrhea, grow quite well in the human body but still cannot be easily grown in the laboratory on nutrient media. Carbon sources Most bacteria use some carbon-containing compound as an energy source, and many use carbon-containing compounds as building blocks to synthesize cell components. Photoautotrophic organisms reduce carbon dioxide to glucose and other organic molecules. Both autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms can obtain energy from glucose by glycolysis, fermentation, and the Krebs cycle. Nutrients needed by microorganisms include carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, certain trace elements, and vitamins. Although we are concerned with ways in which microorganisms satisfy their own nutritional needs, we can note that in satisfying such nitrogen sources All organisms, including microorganisms, need nitrogen to synthesize enzymes, other proteins, and nucleic acids. In his laboratory, he uses this medium to keep more than 30 species of spiroplasmas alive and well, making it possible for researchers to study them outside the more than 100 insect, tick, and plant species that they Spiroplasma (magnified 9,301X). Until now, most Spiroplasma species have been impossible to keep alive outside their hosts. Medical researchers are particularly interested in one species that experimentally causes tumors in animals. Another species kills honey bees, and a third lives harmlessly in the Colorado potato beetle, an insect that damages potato, eggplant, and tomato plants. Scientists hope to alter this last species genetically so that it will kill its potato beetle host. These bacteria cause hundreds of crop diseases and millions of dollars in economic losses each year. Another medium being designed would grow the bacterium Mycoplasma pneumoniae, which is the cause of a form of "walking pneumonia" in humans. Some can synthesize all 20 amino acids found in proteins, whereas others must have one or a few amino acids provided in their medium. Certain fastidious organisms require all 20 amino acids and other building blocks in their medium. Many disease-causing organisms obtain amino acids for making proteins and other nitrogenous molecules from the cells of humans and other organisms they invade. Once amino acids are synthesized or obtained from the medium, they can be used in protein synthesis. The processes by which proteins and nucleic acids are synthesized are directly related to the genetic information contained in a cell. Thus, the synthesis of proteins and of nucleic acids will be discussed in Chapters 7 and 8. Human pathogens often require a variety of vitamins and thus are able to grow well only when they can obtain these substances from the host organism. Growing such organisms in the laboratory requires a complex medium that contains all the nutrients they normally obtain from their hosts. Microbes living in the human intestine manufacture vitamin K, which is necessary for blood clotting, and some of the B vitamins, thus benefiting their host. The absence of a single enzyme can render an organism incapable of synthesizing a specific substance. The organism therefore must obtain the substance as a nutrient from its environment. Those with many enzymes have simple nutritional needs because they can synthesize nearly all the substances they need. Those with fewer enzymes have complex nutritional requirements because they lack the ability to synthesize many of the substances they need for growth. Microorganisms obtain sulfur from inorganic sulfate salts and from sulfur-containing amino acids. They use sulfur and sulfur-containing amino acids to make proteins, coenzymes, and other cell components. Some organisms can synthesize sulfur-containing amino acids from inorganic sulfur and other amino acids. These substances include glucose, amino acids, small peptides, nucleosides, and phosphates as well as various inorganic ions. In addition to the endoenzymes that are produced for use within the cell (Chapter 5, p.

They enter the blood infection care plan generic 50 mg minocycline, develop, and reproduce in the lymph glands and ducts, thereby completing the life cycle. Adult worms are responsible for inflammation in lymph ducts, fever, and eventual blockage of lymph channels in affected areas. Each year, many thousands of animals worldwide have anthrax, but only 20,000 to 100,000 humans develop it, mostly in Africa, Asia, and Haiti. An anthrax outbreak at a secret germ warfare factory in Sverdlovsk (now called Yekaterinburg) Russia in 1979 killed at least 77 people out of 88 cases. For a very detailed analysis of this outbreak, see the book by Jeanne Guillemin, Anthrax: the Investigation of a Deadly Outbreak (1999, University of California Press), which strips away lies intended to cover up this gruesome accident. Health authorities in the United States have made vigorous efforts to eradicate anthrax and to prevent its import from other countries. In 2006 one naturally acquired case of inhalation anthrax occurred in a man traveling with a dance group. He was a drummer and had made his own drums using anthrax-infected goat hides from West Africa. The causative agent of anthrax, Bacillus anthracis, was discovered in 1877 by Robert Koch. The bacillus is a large, Gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic, endospore-forming rod. The endospores form only under aerobic conditions and are not found in tissues or circulating blood. Veterinarians and farmers should be very careful to avoid contaminating soil or other materials, as endospores can remain viable over 60 years, perhaps even over 100 years, ruining a pasture for animal usage during those years. Other than by bioterrorism, most human anthrax results from contact with endospores during occupational exposure on farms or in industries that handle wool, hides, meat, or bones. Human anthrax cases appear in 3 different clinical forms: 90% are cutaneous, 5% are respiratory, and 5% are intestinal. Cutaneous anthrax has a mortality rate of 10 to 20% when untreated but only 1% with adequate treatment. In addition, regardless of the initial site of infection, if bacteria enter the bloodstream causing septicemia, this leads to meningitis (which is almost always fatal in 1 to 6 days) in about 5% of patients. Cutaneous anthrax develops 2 to 5 days after endospores enter epithelial layers of the skin. Eventually, the center of the lesion becomes black and necrotic, the scab resembling a piece of coal; hence the Bacillus anthracis name anthrax from the Greek word produces a toxin that for coal. This may mean that Symptoms of intestinal anthrax protease inhibitors could be used against closely mimic those of food poisonanthrax. Ulcerations may form anywhere along the digestive tract, from the mouth and esophagus on down, even in the appendix. Some of them traced the source of the infection to a particular cheese factory in France, which was closed as a result. The newly emerged organisms multiply, release exotoxin locally, and invade adjacent tissue, where they produce extensive damage. Under natural circumstances it is uncommon in humans, but common among grazing animals whose noses are close to the soil in which anthrax spores wait. Once inhaled into the lungs, the spores germinate in alveoli where they are phagocytized, but not killed, by macrophages. Therefore discontinuing antibiotics 10 or 30 days after a known or suspected exposure is a risky thing to do. Unfortunately, early symptoms of pulmonary anthrax resemble those of many common respiratory infections such as colds or the flu. However, if exposure is not suspected, it is unlikely that antibiotics will be given now-later they will not save the patient. Then comes a period of false relief: symptoms ease, but bacteria enter the bloodstream leading to septicemia and death 2 or 3 days later from septic shock. The lymph nodes of the mediastinum (the central, vertical part of the chest) become greatly enlarged, and can be seen on X-ray as a distinct widening of the mediastinum.

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